When in the mid-1980s the productions of such prominent Chinese directors as Zhang Yimou and Chen Kaige began receiving international attention, references to "China's Fifth Generation" of filmmakers increasingly popped up in Western media. Now we have the "Sixth Generation." But while this implies that at one time there was a First through Fourth Generation, they are seldom mentioned. Who were they? We will discuss these earlier filmmakers here from time to time,, but we have to start out with the First Generation, and the man who was first among the First: Zhang Shichuan.
Zhang Shichuan 张石川 was born Zhang Weitong, on January 1, 1890 in the city
of Ningbo, Zhejiang province. He was 16 when his father died, and the
boy was sent to Shanghai to live with an uncle, who found him a job in
a textile factory. The company employing him did considerable work
with Shanghai's sizable foreign business community, and his reputation
soon grew among them. He enhanced his career prospects by taking ESL
night school classes, and was soon speaking what was termed "Yang Jing
Peng English," named after the creek which flowed between the French
and the International Settlements in Shanghai, and indicating a level
of fluency suitable for communication in business dealings.
In 1913, Russian-American expatriate entrepreneur Benjamin Brodsky
decided to return to the U.S. via Hong Kong, and put his Asia Film
Company up for sale. The buyers' correct identities are unrecorded,
but in 1913 two American businessmen whose names are transliterated in
Chinese documents as "Isher" and "Shafei" purchased the company, and
their high regard for the 23-year-old Zhang Shichuan prompted them to
ask him to join them as their adviser and company COO. Zhang directed
several short narrative films for the Asia Company, among which "A
Couple in Difficulty" is regarded as China's first narrative film.
In
1916, when the Asia Company announced it was ceasing operations, Zhang
Shichuan joined with four others (Zheng Zhengqiu, Zhou Jianyun, Zheng
Zhegu and Ren Jinping) to establish their own film studio, which they
called "Mingxing" 明星 (Star). Mingxing eventually grew into the largest
film studio in China, and from 1923 to 1937 Zhang Shichuan directed 70
films for the company, becoming the father of Chinese movie direction,
the leading director of its First Generation of filmmakers.
Zhang
Shichuan was a strong advocate of making movies with "box office
value." If the romantic movies of what was called the "Mandarin ducks
and butterflies school" made money, he filmed them; if martial arts
fantasies sold tickets, he filmed those. And when the left-wing film
movement emerged, Zhang made such movies as "Cosmetics Market,"
"Prospects," and "The New Year's Gift." Conversely, to complement the
Nationalist government's campaign to suppress the Communists, he made a
documentary, "Report on Suppressing the Bandits."
After several
years of steady encroachment on China's sovereignty and interference
into her internal affairs, Japan in 1937 launched a full-scale
invasion. The invaders shut down the movie studios, and many Chinese
film workers fled Shanghai, some to Hong Kong, and some to Wuhan and
later to Chongqing (Chungking). However, the Japanese did not occupy
the foreign concessions, and in this part of Shanghai, the "Orphan
Island," Zhang Shichuan joined the Guohua Film Company, directing
movies for them until the Japanese occupied the foreign concessions at
the end of 1941. Unlike their actions in 1937, the Japanese this time
allowed film making to go on in Shanghai, so long as anti-Japanese
themes were not included in the subject matter. Zhang joined one of
these wartime studios, serving as its plant manager and head of
production in addition to directing.
Three Unforgettable Films
In
a 1933 article Zhang wrote that, "There are three movies I can never
forget: 'Orchid in an Empty Valley,' 'Burning of the Red Lotus
Temple," and 'A Marriage Through Tears and Laughter' ... "
Why did Zhang consider these three films as unforgettable? Each has its own reasons.
"Orchid"
is the representative work of China's early silent movies. It has been
said that "whenever early films are discussed, 'Orchid in an Empty
Valley' must be mentioned." Adapted from Chinese author Bao Tianxiao's
translation of a novel by Japanese author Ruikō Kuroiwa (1862-1920), this 1926
release introduced and molded the 
screen images of actor Zhu Fei and
actresses Zhang Zhiyun and Yang Naimei, and made 120,000 yuan at the
box office, a huge success at that time.
[right: "Orchid in an Empty Valley"]
"Burning of
the Red Lotus Temple" was Zhang's adaptation of a martial arts novel.
As the story goes, Zhang's son loved to read martial arts novels, and
one night the elder Zhang, having trouble getting to sleep, picked up a
copy of this book from his son's bedside nightstand in the hope that
reading might make him drowsy. He soon found himself wide awake,
inspired with ideas for adapting the book for the screen. He read
through to the end, and the next morning began work on a film version.
The movie was a huge success, with 18 parts filmed between 1928 and
1931. Its success launched a succession of imitations from other
studios, and for a
time martial arts fantasies dominated China's movie
screens. But this eventually led to a public backlash and even
political pressure to stop making them. So this was an "unforgettable"
film for Zhang not only because of its exceptional financial success,
but also for the eventual condemnation of the genre.
[left: "Burning of the Red Lotus Temple"]
The
six-part "A Marriage Through Tears and Laughter" was another literary
adaptation, of a novel by the prolific novelist Zhang Henshui. The
Star studio invested heavily in its filming. However, the Great China
studio was making its own version at the same time, and the rights
question inevitably wound up in the courts. The two sides agreed to
mediation by Du Yuesheng, the head of Shanghai's leading triad, as well
as a powerful political force. The outcome was that Star won the right
to make the movie, but only after paying Great China a sizable
indemnity. However, the movie was released at a time (1932) when
anti-Japanese feelings were growing among the Chinese people, in no
mood for sentimental romances. So the movie did poorly at the box
office, which combined with the payoff to Great China forced the Star
company into bankruptcy for a time. This was why Zhang Shichuan listed
it among his three "unforgettable" films.
The Star-Maker
When
the Star Company was newly established, out of its competitive needs,
Zhang Shichuan discovered and made the reputations of four of China's
biggest silent film actresses: Wang Hanlun, Yang Naimei, Zhang Zhiyun
and Xuan Jinglin.
Wang Hanlun was an instant success in her
first movie, "An Orphan Saves His 
Grandpa," so Zhang quickly
capitalized on this by casting her in the lead in three more films,
"The Death of Yuli," "Pitiful Son, Weak Daughter," and "A Young
Laborer." These four successes made her for a time China's biggest
star of the mid-1920s.
"The Death of Yuli" was Yang
Naimei's first screen role, but her signature work was her performance
in "A Resurrected Conscience," adapted from Tolstoy's novel
"Resurrection." Yang's interpretation of the heroine, 
a seduced and
abandoned peasant girl who winds up on trial in a climactic court
scene, was lauded by contemporary reviewers as flawless. During the
film's initial run, Yang came on stage to sing during intermission, and
this practice quickly caught on with audiences.
In
1925, an entertainment venue in Shanghai held what we would today call
a film festival, with the city's several film studios participating.
The Star Company contribution was "Orchid in an Empty Valley," starring
Zhang Zhiyun.
The movie drew the largest attendance at the festival,
and Zhang Zhiyun was voted "Best Actress" by filmgoers.
Xuan
Jinglin had the longest tenure with Star, making more than 20 films
there. She herself said the ones she found most satisfying 
were "Twin
Sisters" and its sequel "Flowers Reborn," "Orchid," and "A Big
Family."
In addition to these four actresses,
another source of pride for Zhang Shichuan occurred in 1927, when he
took advantage of a reorganization at the rival Tianyi studio to bring
the "pillar" of that studio, Hu Die, to the Star studio. Hu Die, often
billed as "Butterfly 
Wu" (or "Woo") when her films were shown outside
of China, made many films for Star, and in 1933 was awarded the title
"Empress of Film" in a nationwide survey. Her reputation was undying,
and she became Star's money tree.
But his satisfaction
at the successful results of this decision were tempered by another he
made at the same time. After securing Hu Die's services for Star,
Zhang released Ruan Lingyu from the company. Ruan had joined Star in
1926, but soon became unhappy over Zhang Shichuan's lack of emphasis on
her as a
lead actress. When Star let her go, Ruan joined the Lianhua
(United China) studio, and under the tutelage of such people as Sun Yu,
became a top star, recognized today as China's greatest actress of the
silent era. Zhang eventually realized his mistake, and it was
something he regretted the rest of his days.
Two Complex but Happy Matches
When
Zhang Shichuan first arrived in Shanghai as a lonely teenager in the
world's most wicked city, he began frequenting low-class brothels. At
one of these places he met a girl, and it was love at first sight. She
was pretty, she was kind, the two moved in together and soon had a
child.
When his filmmaking career really began to take off,
Zhang became acquainted with He Yongchang, a man known as Shanghai's
"King of Fur." This very wealthy man believed that fathers should
choose their sons-in-law, and on first meeting Zhang Shichuan the young
movie director's capability, shrewdness and initiative so impressed He
Yongchang that he decided this was someone destined to accomplish great
things. He insisted on introducing Zhang to his daughter He Xiujun, a
first meeting at which the older man declared "You two are an ideal
match, and I will choose an auspicious day for your marriage!" He
Xiujun saw in Zhang Shichuan an astute and capable young man, handsome
and ambitious. Zhang saw her as a vivacious and lovely young woman
with a wealthy and influential father, a bridal prospect with no down
side. The two quickly began to discuss marriage.
Zhang's first
wife came from a poor background, and realized she had no way of
supporting her husband financially in what was becoming a meteoric rise
to success. Therefore, she did not oppose his marriage to He Xiujun.
But she did set out certain conditions, namely that she also be
regarded as his legal wife, that her living boudoir be recognized as
co-equal to that of He Xiujun, and her children be given full status in
the family as Zhang's heirs. Zhang Shichuan was bewildered: a wife
and a concubine were not uncommon for successful men, but how can you
have two co-equal wives in the same household? After puzzling over
this for some time without result, Zhang did what he often did when
confronted with a knotty problem: consult with his close friend,
writer/director Zheng Zhengqiu.
Zheng Zhengqiu was
an expert at mediating disputes, and in the end he came up with the
solution he thought best for all concerned, namely: let Zhang Shichuan
and He Xiujun go to Hangzhou to marry. Then, after their return to
Shanghai, they would establish a home in a new location, while his
first wife and their child would continue living at their current
address. As Zheng put it, this would maintain the form of "one family,
two locations," with each wife reigning supreme in her particular
household. Both sides agreed enthusiastically to this, and implemented
the arrangement.
[right: Zheng Zhengqiu]
As noted
earlier, Zhang Shichuan had remained in Shanghai for the duration of
World War II, during which he worked for a time at the Huaguang (China
Light) film studio. This came back to haunt him after the war, when he
was accused of treason for working at a film studio regarded as
collaborationist although it really just made movies that were escapist
entertainments. At the time he was accused, Zhang was in Hong Kong directing Zhou Xuan in "An All-Consuming Love" for the Great China studio. As soon as
he learned of the charges against him, he was naturally overcome with
worry and fear. He already suffered from a variety of ailments, and
this added provocation caused his heart trouble and diabetes to flare
up. After days of agonizing concern, he resigned from the film and
hurried back to Shanghai to face the charges. When he arrived, he
found that many in the Shanghai film community had been accused of
being wartime collaborators, but were using social and political
connections to get off, not a difficult task since the evidence of
actual treason was so flimsy. Ironically, one of the leading political
figures in getting charges against filmmakers dropped was the deputy
mayor of Shanghai (with whom Zhang's daughter turned out to be having
an affair). While the entire film community was for a time abuzz with
the possibility of treason charges against so many of them, in the end
no one was actually brought to trial.
But while it turned out to
be a false alarm, the ordeal had taken its toll on Zhang, and from 1946
on, his health steadily declined.
In 1948, the Liu brothers
(Liu Zhongliang and Liu Zhonghao) established two film studios, Guotai
(National Peace) and Datong (Great Unity), and asked Zhang to join them
as Datong's head of production. He agreed, but after making just one
movie, "A Woman in Troubled Times," he felt he could not continue, and
retired for good.
Zhang Shichuan moved for a time to Suzhou, but
soon returned to Shanghai. After passing a few years there as a
frequently bedridden invalid, he died June 8, 1953, age 63.
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For further reading:
Liu, Siping. Zhang Shichuan cong ying shi (History of Zhang Shichuan in movies). Beijing: China Motion Picture Press, 2000.
